Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) in e-waste and e-waste recycling/dismantling sites: Endocrine disruption, ecotoxicological and human health risks, remediation strategies, and policy recommendations

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the most widely used brominated flame retardant in electronic products, and its persistence, endocrine-disrupting potential, and bioaccumulative behavior make it a growing environmental and public-health concern. Rapid expansion of the e-waste recycling sector—particularly in developing countries where informal dismantling practices dominate—has intensified TBBPA release into soil, water, air, and food chains. This review synthesizes current evidence on TBBPA levels in e-waste recycling/dismantling sites, its environmental fate, and its ecotoxicological and human-health impacts. In contrast to previous reviews, this work provides a comprehensive global assessment, integrates recent data on TBBPA derivatives and transformation products , and offers comparative insights between formal and informal recycling settings , revealing considerably higher exposure risks in developing regions. The review also highlights documented neurotoxicity, thyroid disruption, reproductive harm, and immunological effects in exposed workers and biota. Finally, we summarize emerging remediation strategies and present policy recommendations tailored to high-risk e-waste regions. These insights aim to guide improved risk management and support safer, more sustainable e-waste recycling practices.